II. Challenging the Demonization of Wild Animals: Examining the Cultural Context for Conflict and Co-existence

Edmund Leach observed that dogs, pigs, foxes, and other animals are used to insult people, as in: “You dog! You swine!” (1964). He concluded that many of these animals are structurally anomalous because they can be domestic and yet wild (like swine) or flourish in both wild and settled habitats (like foxes), thus crossing and messing up culturally important boundaries. Smith (2021) and Kteily (2015) have written on dehumanization, including the practice of calling people rats, cockroaches, and other animals associated with dirt and darkness. This paper extends their work to examine further characteristics of animal images as terms of abuse. Many animals are mistreated or exterminated, after demonizing them to excuse or justify such actions. In the process, people project their worst feelings about people onto the animals in question. Examining such projection and displacement provides insight into dehumanization and the ensuing mass murder.

American black bears’ characterization as intelligent opportunistic omnivores who live to eat anything and everything, especially high calorie foods that are easy to access, translates directly into a preference for human foods that makes them prone to conflict. The Lake Tahoe Basin has some of the clearest examples of this, due to its high urban density adjacent to native forest, among many other complicating factors. The BEAR League exists to help residents and visitors of Lake Tahoe coexist with its bear population, under the recognition that “a fed bear is a dead bear” and that helping bears unlearn their dependence on human food requires a group effort. When a bear is deemed to be “habituated to human food” by California or Nevada’s Departments of Wildlife or if a citizen is issued a depredation permit, the bear is trapped and killed. Unfounded fears and hunting-oriented politics compound this human-induced problem.

In 2012 a puma in Los Angeles County known as P-22 entered the public eye when he was spotted by camera traps set in Griffith park, and remained in the area until he was humanely euthanized in 2022. In both life and death, P-22 was treated as an unofficial mascot for the city of Los Angeles, highlighted in news media, artistic expression, and in campaigns for the world’s largest wildlife crossing now being built over a major LA freeway. In this study, we ask how has the quantity and content of Los Angeles Times newspaper coverage on mountain lions changed since before, during, and after P-22? And what could this tell us about "charisma" and celebrity as conservation tactics? We've used Atlas.ti to code and analyze thousands of Los Angeles Times newspaper articles related to mountain lions from 1997 to 2023, and other Southern California nespapers for comparison.

Predatory mammals and birds were widespread when humans first arrived in Ireland around 11,000bp. While humans were responsible for at least one extinction (Eurasian Lynx), there is evidence that humans and large predatory wildlife coexisted up to and after the Anglo-Norman invasion. Persecution of large predators was enshrined in law by the 16^th century, coinciding with the repression of indigenous Gaelic culture. By the 19^th century, eagle populations were much reduced and confined to the more remote coast and islands. Accounts confirm the destruction of eagle populations culminating in extinction by the early 20^th century. Reintroduction is an increasingly important tool in species conservation. However, restoring ‘lost’ species where human-wildlife knowledge has been extirpated is often difficult. Shifting baselines, loss of cultural knowledge and the prevalence of colonial mindsets are barriers to successful reintroduction and species recovery. Historical perspectives are important in understanding, addressing and, hopefully, resolving human-wildlife conflicts.

Polar bears are coming into northern communities more frequently, and human-polar bear conflict is increasing. However, in the community of Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, people live alongside polar bears with high tolerance and reciprocal respect. Through this case study, we explored human-polar bear coexistence in the community through Indigenous voices, documented social-ecological change, and mobilized recommendations as future visions to inform inclusive management and research strategies: elevate Indigenous knowledge, support proactive management and less invasive research, cultivate a culture of coexistence, improve education and safety awareness, and protect polar bears to support tourism. We used community-based participatory research, coproduction of knowledge, hands back, hands forward, and storytelling, mixing methods from the social sciences and Indigenous ways of knowing. Our study revealed coexistence can be a tool to bridge social and ecological knowledge, examine and facilitate wildlife conservation, and promote well-being through applied research on global issues at the local level.

This study discusses the ecological imagery on pages 9-16 of the Codex Laud, a sacred manuscript from central Mexico composed by indigenous scribes around the 14th-15th centuries CE. The glyphs and illustrations on these pages, whose exact meanings remain unsettled in current research, delineate an almanac that associates distinct cycles of time with different divinities, four of whom preside over the sun, rain, and plant cultivation. They are accompanied by specific birds that migrate seasonally through central Mexico, suggesting that the almanac might be better understood in terms of regional phenology. This paper argues that the almanac’s imagery cites seasonal bird activity to mark annual solar stations (e.g., solstices and equinoctial quarter-days), which it graphically aligns with weather patterns, planting cycles, and the 260-day ritual calendar once widely observed in Mexico. Its authors applied their keen understanding of avian behavior to visually correlate sacred timekeeping with agricultural practices.

Western Science regards naturally occurring hybridization as representing error in mate choice, thus demonizing natural hybridization, which is now recognized as an important evolutionary process, challenging this line of thinking. For example, analysis of phylogenetic relationships among white-headed gulls revealed that ecological and sexual selection are not strong enough to complete reproductive isolation among several species in this complex.

In the 1970’s, many Black ducks were found carrying Mallard DNA, raising concerns about long-term viability. Research revealed that hybrid offspring rarely breed back with pure Black Ducks, limiting gene flow back into black duck populations. More recently, Barred Owls have been considered invasive to the range of spotted owls, being larger, more aggressive, and more numerous. USFWS is considering a strategy to remove Barred owls, which proposes killing up to 450,000 Barred Owls over 30 years. This represents demonization, revealing Eugenics-based, ineffective Conservation approaches which must be resisted.

People recognize birds as important for not only their anatomy and behavior but their symbolic meaning, which is culturally variable. For example, hummingbirds are associated with war in some cultures and hospitality in others. Birds have been seen as guardians and teachers who speak to individuals, kin groups, and nations. However, in the globalized technocratic society of today, birds are redefined as objects to be used for manipulation and coercion. The corporate media promote a utilitarian view of birds that emphasizes superficial aspects for consumer culture. Relational meaning and spiritual essence have been replaced by commodified images for video games; governments utilize caricatures of birds to manipulate the governed; and mililtary authorities weaponize bird images for bombers, helicopters, and drones. Nevertheless, contrasting worldviews continue to survive. What alternative meanings are emerging that engage people and encourage them in redefining their relationship to birds, people, and their surroundings?