Ancient use of Ephedra species in Central and Eastern Eurasia

Ephedra species have an ancient history of use in Eurasia, especially but not entirely in the arid areas of this huge region. More recently, archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence, along with deeper understanding of relevant written records, have provided us with additional insight into the traditional utilization of this of genus of unusual plants with very special alkaloids. Ephedra plants have long served as a stimulant and therapeutic medicine for people, producing many tonic benefits because of their ability to serve as bronchodilator and decongestant in addition to other significant effects on the central nervous system.  Furthermore, given the appropriate set and setting, Ephedra combined with other substances in the past, as perhaps in the case of haoma and/or soma, can have potent psychoactive and physiological effects. Some of the more challenging hypotheses relating to the ancient uses of Ephedra species in Eurasia are analyzed in this paper.